Church History: Ecumenical Councils

By Sal Ciresi
HERALD Columnist
(From the issue of 2/14/02)

Canon 751 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law states that "heresy" (theological error), "schism" (ecclesiastical division), and "apostasy" (renouncing Christianity) are serious matters. Therefore, anxious to protect the faithful, the Catholic Church has met officially, at various times, to address matters of faith, morals, and discipline. These formal events, under certain conditions, are known as "Ecumenical Councils."

The term "ecumenical," derived from the Greek oikoumene and Latin oecumenicus, implies the concept of "universality." This word sheds light on the nature of an Ecumenical (or General) Council: an assembly of the world’s college of bishops, in union with the Pope, for the purpose of explaining, defending, and clarifying ecclesiastical issues. Ecumenical Councils are never conducted for a mere display of ecclesiastical power — an Ecumenical Council is called to benefit the Church; individually and collectively.

The Ecumenical Council has its foundation in Sacred Scripture. The Old Testament shows a type of hierarchy, instruments utilized by God, that promulgated binding decisions for the Old Covenant faithful (cf. Dt. 4:1-14; Neh. 8:1-8). The New Testament continued this pattern (cf. Mt. 28:18-20; 1 Cor. 5:1-2). A significant example of this authority is the formal gathering seen in Acts 15:1-35, the "Jerusalem Council." Although not an Ecumenical Council in the strict sense, this official meeting at Jerusalem, circa A.D. 50, was a model for legitimate doctrinal and councilor development. Acts 15 shows the primacy of St. Peter (cf. Code, Can. 749.1) and the related work of the bishops with him (cf. Code, Can. 749.2).

The office of the Papacy has a key role for an Ecumenical Council. These official meetings are carried out in union with the Pope, and under his presidency. The Holy Father personally presides over these gatherings, or when necessary, sends Papal representatives. It is the Roman Pontiff’s prerogative to convoke, preside over, and confirm these assemblies (cf. Code, Can. 338.1-2).

In the first millennium, the emperors participated in the summoning or convoking of the first eight Ecumenical Councils. Nevertheless, they were still subject to final confirmation by the Bishop of Rome. The documents drawn up by these Ecumenical Councils became obligatory only when the Pope confirmed and promulgated these works; a norm followed today (cf. Code, Can. 341.1-2).

At an Ecumenical Council, it is not necessary for every bishop of the universal Church to be present, although a large number of the episcopate usually attends (cf. Code, Can. 339.1). In addition to bishops, these assemblies are often attended by theologians, religious orders, and even non-Catholics. Their level of participation is determined by the Catholic Church: bishops alone are normally the deliberative voters (cf. Code, Can. 339.2).

Ecclesiastical history testifies to 21 Ecumenical Councils. In chronological order, they are Nicea I (A.D. 325); Constantinople I (A.D. 381); Ephesus (A.D. 431); Chalcedon (A.D. 451); Constantinople II (A.D. 553); Constantinople III (A.D. 680-681); Nicea II (A.D. 787); Constantinople IV (A.D. 869-870); Lateran I (1123); Lateran II (1139); Lateran III (1179); Lateran IV (1215); Lyons I (1245); Lyons II (1274); Vienne (1311-1312); Constance (1414-1418); Florence (1439-1445); Lateran V (1512-1517); Trent (1545-1563); Vatican I (1869-1870); and Vatican II (1962-1965).

Each Ecumenical Council is unique. The first eight Councils were held in the East (the Mediterranean area); the remaining 13 took place in the West (Italy, France, or the Holy Roman Empire). Ephesus (A.D. 431) was completed in less than one month; Trent (1545-1563) lasted approximately 18 years because of interruptions. Lyons I (1245) had three sessions in its lone year; Constance (1414-1418) had 45 sessions over a four-year span. Constantinople IV (869-870) was attended by approximately 100 bishops; Lateran II (1139) was occupied by nearly 1000 apostolic successors. Florence (1439-1445) met in three different locales: Basle, Ferrara, and Florence. Vatican I (1869-1870) ended prematurely because of the Franco-Prussian War.

The 21 Ecumenical Councils are an essential part of Church history. These formal gatherings provided crucial data for a lifetime of prayer and study. The most relevant Counciliar documents are accessible via EWTN (www.ewtn.com).

Ciresi serves on the faculty of the Notre Dame Graduate School of Christendom College.

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